An Examination of Immigrant Primary School Students’ Target Language Listening and Reading Anxiety
Keywords:
Target language listening anxiety, target language reading anxiety, immigrant primary school studentsAbstract
This study examined the Target Language Listening Anxiety (TLLA) and Target Language Reading Anxiety (TLRA) of immigrant primary school students in Türkiye. The primary objective was to modify two instruments, initially developed to assess reading and listening anxiety in the target language among adult learners, for use with immigrant primary school students, addressing a gap in receptive skills measurement. The second was to analyse the students’ TLLA and TLRA levels based on gender, grade level, and native language alphabet, and to examine predictive influence of TLLA on TLRA. In line with these two research purposes, the study was conducted in two phases. In Study 1, after assessing content validity, construct validity of the scales was ensured using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted on distinct groups, with samples of 132 and 219 immigrant students, respectively. Participants were selected through convenience sampling from foreign students enrolled in private and public schools during 2022-2024. In Study 2, the analyses utilized data from the sample group employed for confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). Independent sample t-test was conducted to examine the differences in means between TLLA and TLRA with respect to gender. Additionally, one-way ANOVA was employed to compare the means of TLLA and TLRA across different grade levels and native language alphabets. Furthermore, simple linear regression analysis was utilized to determine whether the TLLA of immigrant primary school students serves as a significant predictor of their TLRA. The findings revealed that immigrant primary students exhibited moderate-high anxiety in TLLA and TLRA. No significant differences in TLLA emerged across gender, grade level, or native language alphabet. TLRA was consistent across grades and native alphabets but differed by gender. Furthermore, TLLA emerged as a significant predictor of TLRA. This study may provide valuable insights for researchers, administrators, and educators into immigrant primary school students’ listening and reading anxiety, and can pave the way for further scholarly inquiry, offering measurement tools to identify receptive language-related anxiety affecting target language comprehension and acculturation.
Downloads
References
Abdulqader, K. (2024). The Role of English in Learning Turkish as a Foreign Language. Social Sciences Studies Journal 10(12), 2244-2252. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.145 69323
Açık, F. (2008). Problems encountered in teaching Turkish to foreigners in Turkey and suggestions for solutions. I. International Turkish Education and Teaching Symposium Proceedings (27-28 March 2008). Eastern Mediterranean University Publications.
Altıntaş, G., & Canbulat, A. N. K. (2024). An examination of immigrant primary school students' attitudes towards learning the target language: The role of subjective well-being at school and academic grit. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 98, 101929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2023.101929
Altunkaya, H. & Erdem, İ. (2016). Yabancı dil olarak Türkçe öğrenenlere yönelik Okuma Kaygısı ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi. Kuram ve uygulama bağlamında Türkçe öğretimi [Development of Reading Anxiety Scale for learners of Turkish as a foreign language. Turkish teaching in the context of theory and practice] (pp:366-380). Anı Publishing.
Aukrust, V. G. (2008) Turkish‐speaking first graders in Norway acquiring second language vocabulary, listening comprehension and literacy skills. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 52,3, 293-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313830802025108
Baker, W. (2012). From cultural awareness to intercultural awareness: Culture in ELT. ELT Journal, 66, 62-70. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccr017
Birman, D. (2006). Measurement of the acculturation gap in immigrant families and implications for parent-child relationships. In M. H. Bornstein, & L. R. Cote (Eds.), Acculturation and parent-child relationships: Measurement and development (pp. 113–134). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780415963589
Bloomfield, A., Wayland, S. C., Rhoades, E., Blodgett, A., Linck, J., & Ross, S. (2010). What makes listening difficult? Factors affecting second language listening com-prehension. University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language. http://www.dliflc.edu/file.ashx?path=archive/documents/CASL_study_FINAL_Lit_Rev.pdf
Borkowski, J. G., Chan, L. K. S., & Muthukrishna, N. (2000). A process-oriented model of metacognition: Links between motivation and executive functioning. In G. Schraw & J. C. Impara (Eds.), Issues in the measurement of metacognition (pp. 1–42). Lincoln: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements
Brantmeier, C. (2005). Anxiety about L2 reading or L2 reading tasks? A study with advanced language learners. The Reading Matrix, 5(2), 67-85.
Bredtmann J., Otten, S. & Vonnahme, C. (2021) Linguistic diversity in the classroom, student achievement, and social integration, Education Economics, 29, 2, 121-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2020.1866499
Brown, C. (2000). The interrelation between speech perception and phonological acquisition from infant to adult. Second language acquisition and linguistic theory, 1, 4-64.
Brown, T.A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd Ed.). The Guilford Press.
Büyüköztürk, S. (2010). Sosyal bilimler icin veri analizi el kitabI: İstatistik, arastIrma deseni, SPSS uygulamalarI ve yorum. [Data analysis handbook for social sciences: Statistics, research design, SPSS applications and interpretation]. Pegem Academy.
Capan, S. A., & Karaca, M. (2013). A comparative study of listening anxiety and reading anxiety. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 70, 1360-1373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.198
Cheng, Y. S. (2017). Development and preliminary validation of four brief measures of L2 language-skill-specific anxiety. System, 68, 15-25.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.06.009
Cheng, J., & Matthews, J. (2018). The relationship between three measures of L2 vocabulary knowledge and L2 listening and reading. Language Testing, 35, 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532216676851
Chiswick, B.R. & Miller P.W. (2015). International migration and the economics of language. In Chiswick BR, Miller PW (Eds). Handbook of the Economics of International Migration, North-Holland, Amsterdam:211–269.
Chow, B. W. Y., Chiu, H. T., & Wong, S. W. (2018). Anxiety in reading and listening English as a foreign language in Chinese undergraduate students. Language Teaching Research, 22(6), 719-738. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168817702159
Çiftçi, Ö., & Demirci, R. (2019a). The role of false equivalent words in teaching Turkish as a foreign language to Arabic speaking students as mother tongue. Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 4(2), 628-644. https://doi.org/10.33905/bseusbed.629714
Çiftçi, Ö., & Demirci, R. (2019b). Effect of alphabet differences in Turkish education to foreigners. TURUK International Language, Literature and Folklore Researches Journal, 7(19), 96-128.
Çokluk, Ö., Şekercioğlu, G., & Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2025). Sosyal bilimler için çok değişkenli istatistik: SPSS ve LISREL uygulamaları [Multivariate statistics for social sciences: SPSS and LISREL applications] (8th ed.). Pegem Akademy.
Coşgun, Ö. D., & Karamustafaoğlu, O. Thoughts of third and fourth grades primary school refugee students on matter concept. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 7(3), 525-540. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.321729
Crosby, D. A., & Dunbar, A. S. (2012). Patterns and predictors of school readiness and early childhood success among young children in black immigrant families. Migration Policy Institute.
Culhane, S. F. (2004). An intercultural interaction model: Acculturation attitudes in second language acquisition. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 1(1), 50-61.
Davidson, L. (2011). Phonetic and phonological factors in the second language production of phonemes and phonotactics. Linguistics & Language Compass, 5(3), 126-139. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2010.00266.x
Dixon, L. Q., & Wu, S. (2014). Home language and literacy practices among immigrant second-language learners. Language Teaching, 47(4), 414-449. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444814000160
Du, G., & Man, D. (2022). Person factors and strategic processing in L2 listening comprehension: Examining the role of vocabulary size, metacognitive knowledge, self-efficacy, and strategy use. System, 107, 102801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102801
Dustmann C, Glitz A (2011) Migration and education. In Hanushek EA, Machin S, Woessmann L. (Eds.) Handbook of the Economics of Education, (pp. 327–439). CReAM Discussion Paper No 05/11.
Duursma, E., Romero-Contreras, S., Szuber, A., Proctor, P., Snow, C., August, D., & Calderón, M. (2007). The role of home literacy and language environment on bilinguals' English and Spanish vocabulary development. Applied psycholinguistics, 28(1), 171-190. https://doi.org/10.1017.S0142716406070093
Elkhafaifi, H. (2005). Listening comprehension and anxiety in the Arabic language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 89(2), 206-220.
Engel de Abreu, P. M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2012). Executive and phonological processes in second-language acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(4), 974 -986.
Feng, G., Miller, K., Shu, H., & Zhang, H. (2009). Orthography and the development of reading processes: An eye-movement study of Chinese and English. Child Development, 80, 720–735.
Furnes, B., & Samuelsson, S. (2011). Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming predicting early development in reading and spelling: Results from a cross-linguistic longitudinal study. Learning and Individual Differences, 21 (1), 85-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.10.005
Genç, H. N. (2017). Spelling and punctuation in writing education in teaching Turkish as a foreign language. Language Journal, 168/2, 31-42.
George, D., & Mallery, P. (2024). IBM SPSS statistics 29 step by step: A simple guide and reference, (18th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781032622156
Ghahri, S., & Zarei, A. A. (2022). The effect of pre-listening activity types on listening comprehension and listening anxiety. Journal of Modern Research in English Language Studies, 9(4), 93-118.https://doi.org/10.30479/jmrels.2022.16910.2030
Ghonsooly, B., & Elahi, M. (2010). Learners' self-efficacy in reading and its relation to foreign language reading anxiety and reading achievement. Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning, 53 (217), 45-63.
Gilakjani, A. P., & Ahmadi, M. R. (2011). A study of factors affecting EFL learners' English listening comprehension and the strategies for improvement. Journal of Language Teaching and research, 2(5), 977-988. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.2.5.977-988
Gkonou, C. (2017). Towards an ecological understanding of language anxiety. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney, & J.-M. Dewaele (Eds.), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 135–155). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Gleason, J. B. (2009). Language and socialization”. F. S. Kessel (Ed.), The Development of Language and Language Researchers (s. 269-280). Psychology Press.
Golchi, M. M. (2012). Listening anxiety and its relationship with listening strategy use and listening comprehension among Iranian IELTS learners. International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(4), 115. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v2n4p115
Gonzalez, J. E., & Uhing, B. M. (2008). Home literacy environments and young Hispanic children's English and Spanish oral language: A communality analysis. Journal of Early Intervention, 30(2), 116-139. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815107313858
Grabe, W., & Stoller, L. F. (2002). Teaching and researching reading. Pearson Education.
Graham, S., & Macaro, E. (2008). Strategy instruction in listening for lower‐intermediate learners of French. Language learning, 58(4), 747-783.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2008.00478.x
Gregersen, T., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014). Capitalizing on language learners’ individuality. Bristol: Multilingual Matters
Güngör, F., & Şenel, A. (2018). Teachers and students view in problems of the foreign primary school students in education process encountered. Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, 8(2), 124-173. https://doi.org/10.18039/ajesi.454575
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J. & Anderson, R.E. (2014). Multivariate Data Analysis. (7th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
Hammer, C. S., Davison, M. D., Lawrence, F. R., & Miccio, A. W. (2009). The effect of maternal language on bilingual children's vocabulary and emergent literacy development during Head Start and kindergarten. Scientific studies of reading, 13(2), 99-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430902769541
Holliday, A. (2013). Understanding intercultural communication: Negotiating a grammar of culture. London: Routledge.
Horwitz, E. K., Tallon, M., & Luo, H. (2009). Foreign language anxiety. In J. C. Cassady (Ed.), Anxiety in schools: The causes, consequences, and solutions for academic anxieties. New York: Peter Lang.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cut off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Huang, Q. (2009). Background knowledge and reading teaching. Asian Social Science, 5(5), 138–142. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v5n5p138
Isphording I.E, Otten, S. (2014). Linguistic barriers in the destination language acquisition of immigrants. J Econ Behav Organ., 105, 30–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.03.027
Jalongo, M. R., & Hirsh, R. A. (2010). Understanding reading anxiety: New insights from neuroscience. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(6), 431-435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-010-0381-5
Jeon, E. H., & Yamashita, J. (2014). L2 reading comprehension and its correlates: A meta‐analysis. Language learning, 64(1), 160-212. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12034
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIS command language. Scientific software international.
Khan, A. Z., & Zafar, S. (2010). The effects of anxiety on cognitive processing in English language learning. English Language Teaching, 3(2), 200-209.
Kanas, A., Kosyakova, Y., & Vallizadeh, E. (2022). Linguistic enclaves, sorting, and language skills of immigrants. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2022.2132572
Karaağaç, F. C., & Güvenç, H. (2019). Educational problems of Syrian refugee students in elementary schools. International Journal of Society Researches, 11(18), 530-568. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.530733
Kim, J. S. (2011). Korean EFL learners' listening anxiety, listening strategy use, and listening proficiency. English Language & Literature Teaching, 17(1), 101-124.
Kimura, H. (2008). Foreign language listening anxiety: Its dimensionality and group differences. JALT Journal, 30(2), 173-196.
Koğar H. (2020). Kısa form geliştirme: yöntemler, öneriler ve incelemeler. [Short Form Development: Methods, Suggestions and Reviews]. Journal of Measurement and Evaluation in Education and Psychology, 113, 302-310. https://doi.org/10.21031/epod.739548.
Konrot, A. (2011). İletişim, dil ve konuşma bozuklukları. [Communication, language and speech disorders]. In S. Topbaş (Ed.), Dil ve kavram gelişimi [Language and concept development]. (pp. 227-248). Kök Publishing.
Konstam, E., & Neuhaus, D. (2011). Decoding skills. In S. Goldstein & J. A. Naglieri (Eds.), Encyclopedia of child behavior and development (pp. 477–477). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_787
Kuhl, P. K. (2004). Early language acquisition: Cracking the speech code. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 831-843.
Kulamshaeva, Baktygul (2018). Morpho-phonologic problems in learning Turkish as a foreign language: A case study of Kyrgyz students. Journal of Academic Social Science, 6(70), 212-224. https://doi.org/10.16992/ASOS.13648
Lababıdı, A., & Ökten, C. E. (2021). Arabic-Turkish False Friends in Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Language. International Journal of Languages' Education and Teaching, 9(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.29228/ijlet.48929
Lerv˚ag, A., & Aukrust, V. G. (2010). Vocabulary knowledge is a critical determinant of the difference in reading comprehension growth between first and second language learners. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 612–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02185.x
Levin, T., Shohamy, E. (2012). Understanding language achievement of immigrants in schools: The role of multiple academic languages. In: Leikin, M., Schwartz, M., Tobin, Y. (eds). Current Issues in Bilingualism. Literacy Studies. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2327-6_7
Lien, H. Y. (2011). EFL learners’ reading strategy use in relation to reading anxiety. Language Education in Asia, 2(2), 199-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A03/Lien
Liu, M., & Thondhlana, J. (2015). A study of Chinese University EFL learners’ foreign language listening anxiety, listening strategy use and listening performance. Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, 10(1), 33-57. https://doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v10i1.1507
Liu, W., Tian, L., Huebner, E. S., Zheng, X. and Li, Z. (2015). Preliminary development of The Elementary School Students’ Subjective Well-Being in School Scale. Social Indicators Research, 120(3), 917-937. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0614-x
Mai, L. H., Ngoc, L. T. B., & Thao, V. T. (2014). Enhancing listening performance through schema construction activities. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(5), 1042. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.5.5.1042-1051.
Maier, M. F., Bohlmann, N. L., & Palacios, N. A. (2016). Cross-language associations in the development of preschoolers’ receptive and expressive vocabulary. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 49-63.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.11.006
Mardianti, N., Wijayati, P. H., & Murtadho, N. (2021). The correlation between students' reading anxiety and their reading comprehension in ESP context. International Journal of Language Education, 5(2), 15-29. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v5i2.15440
Marx, A. E., & Stanat, P. (2012). Reading comprehension of immigrant students in Germany: Research evidence on determinants and target points for intervention. Reading and Writing, 25, 1929-1945. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11145-011-9307-x
Matsuda, S., & Gobel, P. (2004). Anxiety and predictors of performance in the foreign language classroom. System, 32(1), 21-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2003.08.002
McKim, C. (2023). Using the literature to create a scale: An innovative qualitative methodological piece. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 26(3), 343-351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2022.2026138
Mihaljević Djigunović, J. (2009). Individual differences in early language programmes. In M. Nikolov (Ed.). The age factor and early language learning (pp. 199–225). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Mills, N., Pajares, F., & Herron, C. (2006). A re-evaluation of the role of anxiety: Self‐efficacy, anxiety, and their relation to reading and listening proficiency. Foreign language annals, 39(2), 276-295.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2006.tb02266.x
Mirza, H., Pathan, H., Memon, S., & Memon, S. (2021). An investigation of listening comprehension difficulties encountered by L2 learners in classroom, Sindh Pakistan. Education Online, 20(5). https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2021.05.257
Mohammadpur, B., & Ghafournia, N. (2015). An elaboration on the effect of reading anxiety on reading achievement. English Language Teaching, 8(7), 206-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v8n7p206
Özdamar K. (2017). Eğitim, Sağlık ve Davranış Bilimlerinde Ölçek ve Test Geliştirme: Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi [Scale and Test Development in Education, Health and Behavioural Sciences: Structural Equation Modelling] Nisan Bookstore.
Öztürk, G. (2023). The relationship between reading and listening anxieties in EFL classrooms: Exploring the mediating effect of foreign language classroom anxiety. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190523000107
Pan, Y. E. (2016). Analysis of listening anxiety in EFL class. Int. J. Stud. English Lang. Lit. 4, 12–16. https://doi.org/10.20431/2347-3134.0406002
Peng, J.-E. 2012. “Towards an ecological understanding of willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms in China. System, 40, 203–213.
Perfetti, C. A., & Liu, Y. (2005). Orthography to phonology and meaning: Comparisons across and within writing systems. Reading and Writing,18, 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-004-2344-y
Polat, M., & Erişti, B. (2018). Yabancı dilde dinleme kaygısı ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi [Development of a foreign language listening anxiety scale] Turkish Studies- Educational Sciences, 13(11), 1113-1138. http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.13438
Polat, Ö. S., & Dilidüzgün, Ş. (2015). The cultural function of poetry activities in Turkish as a foreign language. Turkish Studies, 10(7), 815-834. http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.8042
Proctor, C. P., Carlo, M., August, D., & Snow, C. (2005). Native Spanish-speaking children reading in English: Toward a model of comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(2), 246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.246
Read J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge University Press.
Rost, M. (2001). Listening. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp. 123-157). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rost, M. (2002). Teaching and researching listening. Harlow: Longman.
Rubio-Alcalá, F. D. (2017). The links between self-esteem and language anxiety and implications for the classroom. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney & J.-M. Dewaele (Eds.), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 198–216). Bristol: Multilingual Matters
Saito, Y., Horwitz, E. K., & Garza, T. J. (1999). Foreign language reading anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 83, 202–218
Saville-Troike, M. (2006). Introducing second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
Sellers, V. (2000). Anxiety and reading comprehension in Spanish as a foreign language. Foreign Language Annals, 33(5), 512-521
Sever, S. (2015). Türkçe öğretimi ve tam öğrenme [Turkish teaching and full learning]. Anı Publishing.
Sevinç, Y., & Backus, A. (2019). Anxiety, language use and linguistic competence in an immigrant context: A vicious circle? International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(6), 706–724. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2017.1306021
Shi Y.Z., Liu Z.Q. (2006). Foreign language reading anxiety and its relationship to English achievement and gender. Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages, 29, 59–65.
Smythe, I., Everatt, J., Al-Menaye, N., He, X., Capellini,S., Gyarmathy, E., & Siegel, L. (2008). Predictors of word-level literacy amongst grade 3 children in five diverse languages. Dyslexia, 14, 170–187. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.369
So, C. K., & Best, C. T. (2010). Cross-language perception of non-native tonal contrasts: Effects of native phonological and phonetic influences. Language and speech, 53(2), 273-293.https://doi.org/10.1177/0023830909357156
Soares, S., Boyes, M. E., Parrila, R., & Badcock, N. A. (2023). Does reading anxiety impact on academic achievement in higher education students? Dyslexia, 29(3), 179-198. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1738
Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., & Luebbers, J. (2018). L2 anxiety and the foreign language reading anxiety scale: Listening to the evidence. Foreign Language Annals, 51(4), 738-762. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12361
Suarez-Orozco, C., & Suarez-Orozco, M. (2001). Children of immigration. Harvard University Press.
Toppelberg, C. O., & Collins, B. A. (2010). Language, culture, and adaptation in immigrant children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 19(4), 697–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2010.07.003.
Tüm, G. (2014). Phonological problems encountered in multinational classrooms in teaching Turkish as a foreign language. H. U. Journal of Education, 29(29-2), 255-266.
Uçgun, D. (2016). Research on reading and listening anxieties of secondary school students. International Journal of Turkish Literature Culture Education, 5(4), 1958-1970.
Vandergrift, L. (2007). Recent developments in second and foreign language listening comprehension research. Language Teaching, 40(3), 191–210
Wagner, E. (2004). A construct validation study of the extended listening sections of the ECPE and MELAB. Spaan Fellow Working Papers in Second or Foreign Language Assessment, 2, 1-26
Wallace, M. P. (2021). Exploring the relationship between L2 listening and metacognition after controlling for vocabulary knowledge. Journal of Language and Education, 7, 187-200. https://doi.org/10.17323/jle.2021.12685
Wu, H. J. (2011). Anxiety and reading comprehension performance in English as a foreign language. Asian EFL Journal, 13(2), 273-307.
Wu, Z., Schimmele, C. M., & Hou, F. (2012). Self-perceived integration of immigrants and their children. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 37(4), 381-408. https://www.jstor.org/stable/canajsocicahican.37.4.381
Xu, F. (2008). Listening comprehension in EFL teaching.US-China Foreign Language,6(1), 21-29.
Xu, Y., Farver, J. A. M., & Krieg, A. (2017). The home environment and Asian immigrant children’s early literacy skills. Parenting, 17(2), 104-123. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2017.1304783
Yağcı, G. (2017). The problems and solution suggestions that are faced in Turkish language education as a foreign language: Byelorussia Case. Yearbook of Turkic Studies - Belleten, 65(1), 191-199.
Yamauchı, Y. (2014). Revised version of the foreign language listening anxiety scale: precise description of subordinate concepts' influence on learners. Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan, 25, 143-158.
Yeşilyurt, S., & Çapraz, C. (2018). A road map for the content validity used in scale development studies. Erzincan University Journal of Education Faculty, 20(1), 251-264. http://dx.doi.org/10.17556/erziefd.297741
Zamanzadeh V, Rassouli M, Abbaszadeh A, et al. (2014). Details of content validity and objectifying it in instrument development. Nurs Pract Today, 1(3): 163-171
Zhang, X. (2013). Foreign language listening anxiety and listening performance: Conceptualizations and causal relationships. System, 41(1), 164-177.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.01.004Get rights and content
Zhao, A., Guo, Y., & Dynia, J. (2013). Foreign language reading anxiety: Chinese as a foreign language in the United States. The Modern Language Journal, 97(3), 764-778.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12032.x
Zhou, J. (2017). Foreign language reading anxiety in a Chinese as a foreign language context. Reading in a Foreign Language, 29(1), 155-173. https://doi.org/10125/66732
Zhou, L., Xi, Y. & Lochtman, K. (2023). The relationship between second language competence and willingness to communicate: the moderating effect of foreign language anxiety, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 44(2), 129-143, https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2020.1801697
