Developing a Teachers’ Gender Stereotype Scale toward Mathematics
Abstract
Gender has become a focus of mathematics education research. While some research show that there are no differences between boys and girls, numerous research studies have indicated that boys have outperformed girls. It is suggested that gender stereotypes, such as expecting girls to show less achievement in mathematics compared to boys, have an effect on mathematics achievement. According to these gender stereotypes, boys are more successful in mathematics and science and girls are more successful in literature and arts. Gender stereotypes are transmitted by one generation to the next generation via children’s books, language, parents and teachers as well. Because of teachers’ important role of shaping their students’ beliefs and attitudes, determining teachers’ gender stereotypes is vital to understanding the differences of mathematical achievement between girls and boys. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to develop a teachers’ gender stereotype scale toward mathematics. The scale consists of two subscales: the Boys’ Form and the Girls’ Form. These two forms are conducted with 245 primary school teachers. Results of the exploratory factor analysis for each form, 17 items and four factors are determined. Based on the literature review, these factors are named as environment, gender appropriateness of careers, competence and attribution of success. For each form, the confirmatory factor analysis is conducted and the four factors of the subscales are confirmed. The findings of the study revealed that the scale is a valid and reliable instrument to measure gender stereotypes in mathematics.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Abrantes, P. (2001) Mathematical competence for all: options, implications and obstacles. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 47(2), 125-143.
Altunçekiç, A., Yaman, S., & Koray, Ö. (2005). Öğretmen Adaylarının Öz-Yeterlik İnanç Düzeyleri Ve Problem Çözme Becerileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma (Kastamonu İli Örneği). Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 93.
Andre, T., Whigham, M., Hendrickson, A. and Chambers, S. (1999). Competency beliefs, positive affect, and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects. J. Res. Sci. Teach., 36, 719–747.
Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010). Female Teachers’ Math Anxiety Affects Girls’ Math Achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(5), 1860-1863.
Brookhart，SM., (1997)．A theoretical framework for the role of classroom assessment in motivating student effort and achievement．Applied Measurement in Education, 10, 161－180. Brown, R. P., & Josephs, R. A. (1999). A Burden of Proof: Stereotype Relevance and Gender Differences in Math Performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(2), 246.
Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: Guilford.
Correll, JC. (2001). Gender and the Career Choice Process: The Role of Biased Self‐Assessments, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 106, No.6, 1691-1730.
Çakıroğlu, E., & Işıksal, M. (2009). Pre-service Elementary Teachers’ Attitudes and Self-Efficacy Beliefs toward Mathematics.
Dede, Y., & Dursun, Ş. (2008). İlköğretim II. Kademe Öğrencilerinin Matematik Kaygı Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(2), 295-312.
Dick, TP & Rallis, SP (1991) Factors and Influences on High School Students' Career Choices, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 281-292.
Eccles (Parsons), J., Meece, J. L., Adler, T. F., & Kaczala, C. M. (1982). Sex Differences in Attributions and Learned Helplessness. Sex Roles, 8 (4), 421-432.
Eccles, J. S. (1987). Gender Roles and Women's Achievement-Related Decisions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11(2), 135-172.
Eccles, J. S., & Jacobs, J. E. (1986). Social Forces Shape Math Attitudes and Performance. Signs, 367-380.
Esen, Y. (2013). Gender Discrimination in Educational Processes: An Analysis on the Experiences of Studentship.
Fennama, E., & Sherman, J. A. (1976). Fennema-Sherman mathematics attitude scales: Instruments designed to measure attitudes toward the learning of mathematics by females and males. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 7(5), 324-326.
Fennema, E., Peterson, P. L., Carpenter, T. P., & Lubinski, C. A. (1990). Teachers' Attributions and Beliefs about Girls, Boys, and Mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 21(1), 55-69.
Frenzel, A. C., Pekrun, R., & Goetz, T. (2007). Girls And Mathematics—A “Hopeless” Issue? A Control-Value Approach to Gender Differences in Emotions Towards Mathematics. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 22(4), 497-514.
Gallagher, A. M., De Lisi, R., Holst, P. C., McGillicuddy-De Lisi, A. V., Morely, M., & Cahalan, C. (2000). Gender Differences in Advanced Mathematical Problem Solving. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 75(3), 165-190.
Geary, D. C., Saults, S. J., Liu, F., & Hoard, M. K. (2000). Sex Differences in Spatial Cognition, Computational Fluency, and Arithmetical Reasoning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77(4), 337-353.
Hyde, J. S., Lindberg, S. M., Linn, M. C., Ellis, A. B., & Williams, C. C. (2008). Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance. Science, 321(5888), 494-495.
Jöreskog, K. and Sörbom, D. (1993), LISREL 8: Structural Equation Modeling with the SIMPLIS Command Language. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International Inc.
Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An Index of Factorial Simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31-36. doi: 10.1007/BF02291575
Kargar, M., Tarmizi, R. A., & Bayat, S. (2010). Relationship between Mathematical Thinking, Mathematics Anxiety and Mathematics Attitudes among University Students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 537-542.
Kass, R. A., & Tinsley, H. E. A. (1979). Factor Analysis. Journal of Leisure Research, 11, 120-138.
Kazu, H., & Ersözlü, Z. N. (2008). Öğretmen Adaylarının Problem Çözme Becerilerinin Cinsiyet, Bölüm ve ÖSS Puan Türüne göre İncelenmesi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi.
Keller, C. (2001). Effect of Teachers' Stereotyping on Students' Stereotyping of Mathematics as a Male Domain. The Journal of Social Psychology, 141(2), 165-173.
Kline, P. (1994). An Easy Guide To Factor Analysis. New York: Routledge.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Köğce, D., Yıldız, C., Aydın, M., & Altındağ, R. (2009). Examining elementary school students’ attitudes towards mathematics in terms of some variables. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 291-295.
Leder, G. C., & Forgasz, H. J. (2002). Two New Instruments to Probe Attitudes about Gender and Mathematics.
MEB, (2015) .Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı İlköğretim Matematik Dersi (1-4.Sınıflar) Öğretim Programı.
Nunnally JC. (1978). Psychometric Theory, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pallant, J. (2001). SPSS Survival Manual. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Parsons, J. E., Adler, T. F., & Kaczala, C. M. (1982). Socialization of Achievement Attitudes and Beliefs: Parental influences. Child Development, 310-321.
Pett, M. A., Lackey, N. R., & Sullivan, J. J. (2003). Making Sense of Factor Analysis: The Use of Factor Analysis for Instrument Development in Health Care Research. CA: Sage.
Rallis, SP &Ahren, SA (1986) Math and Science Education in High Schools: A Question of Sex Equality? American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California
Räty, H., Vänskä, J., Kasanen, K., & Kärkkäinen, R. (2002). Parents' Explanations of Their Child's Performance in Mathematics and Reading: A Replication and Extension of Yee and Eccles. Sex Roles, 46(3-4), 121-128.
Schmader, T. (2002). Gender Identification Moderates Stereotype Threat Effects on Women's Math Performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,38(2), 194-201.
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Barquissau, M. (2004). The Costs of Accepting Gender Differences: The Role of Stereotype Endorsement in Women's Experience in the Math Domain. Sex Roles, 50(11-12), 835-850.
Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 4-28.
Sümer, N. (2000). Yapısal Eşitlik Modelleri: Temel Kavramlar ve Örnek Uygulamalar. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 3(6), 49-74.
Tate, W. F. (1997). Race-Ethnicity, SES, Gender, and Language Proficiency Trends in Mathematics Achievement: An Update. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 652-679.
Tavşancıl, E. (2005). Tutumların Ölçülmesi ve SPSS ile Veri Analizi. Ankara: Nobel.
Taylor, F. (2003). Content Analysis and Gender Stereotypes in Children's Books. Teaching Sociology, 300-311.
Tiedemann, J. (2000). Gender-Related Beliefs of Teachers in Elementary School Mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 41(2), 191-207.
Tiedemann, J. (2002). Teachers' gender stereotypes as determinants of teacher perceptions in elementary school mathematics. Educational Studies in mathematics, 50(1), 49-62.
Van de Gaer, E., Pustjens, H., Van Damme, J., & De Munter, A. (2008). Mathematics Participation and Mathematics Achievement across Secondary School: The Role of Gender. Sex Roles, 59(7-8), 568-585.
Weissglass, J. (2002). Inequity in Mathematics Education: Questions for Educators. The Mathematics Educator. 12 (2), 34-39.
Wigboldus, D. H., Semin, G. R., & Spears, R. (2000). How Do We Communicate Stereotypes? Linguistic Bases and Inferential Consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 5.
Yee, D. K., & Eccles, J. S. (1988). Parent Perceptions and Attributions for Children's Math Achievement. Sex Roles, 19(5-6), 317-333.
Yücel, Z., & Koç, M. (2011). The Relationship between the Prediction Level of Elementary School Students’ Math Achievement by Their Math Attitudes and Gender. Elementary Education Online, 10(1), 133-143.
Altunçekiç, A., Yaman, S., & Koray, Ö. (2005). Öğretmen Adaylarının Öz-Yeterlik İnanç Düzeyleri Ve Problem Çözme Becerileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma (Kastamonu İli Örneği). Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 93.
Andre, T., Whigham, M., Hendrickson, A. and Chambers, S. (1999). Competency beliefs, positive affect, and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects. J. Res. Sci. Teach., 36, 719–747.
Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010). Female Teachers’ Math Anxiety Affects Girls’ Math Achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(5), 1860-1863.
Brookhart，SM., (1997)．A theoretical framework for the role of classroom assessment in motivating student effort and achievement．Applied Measurement in Education, 10, 161－180. Brown, R. P., & Josephs, R. A. (1999). A Burden of Proof: Stereotype Relevance and Gender Differences in Math Performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(2), 246.
Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: Guilford.
Correll, JC. (2001). Gender and the Career Choice Process: The Role of Biased Self‐Assessments, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 106, No.6, 1691-1730.
Çakıroğlu, E., & Işıksal, M. (2009). Pre-service Elementary Teachers’ Attitudes and Self-Efficacy Beliefs toward Mathematics.
Dede, Y., & Dursun, Ş. (2008). İlköğretim II. Kademe Öğrencilerinin Matematik Kaygı Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(2), 295-312.
Dick, TP & Rallis, SP (1991) Factors and Influences on High School Students' Career Choices, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 281-292.
Eccles (Parsons), J., Meece, J. L., Adler, T. F., & Kaczala, C. M. (1982). Sex Differences in Attributions and Learned Helplessness. Sex Roles, 8 (4), 421-432.
Eccles, J. S. (1987). Gender Roles and Women's Achievement-Related Decisions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11(2), 135-172.
Eccles, J. S., & Jacobs, J. E. (1986). Social Forces Shape Math Attitudes and Performance. Signs, 367-380.
Esen, Y. (2013). Gender Discrimination in Educational Processes: An Analysis on the Experiences of Studentship.
Fennama, E., & Sherman, J. A. (1976). Fennema-Sherman mathematics attitude scales: Instruments designed to measure attitudes toward the learning of mathematics by females and males. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 7(5), 324-326.
Fennema, E., Peterson, P. L., Carpenter, T. P., & Lubinski, C. A. (1990). Teachers' Attributions and Beliefs about Girls, Boys, and Mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 21(1), 55-69.
Frenzel, A. C., Pekrun, R., & Goetz, T. (2007). Girls And Mathematics—A “Hopeless” Issue? A Control-Value Approach to Gender Differences in Emotions Towards Mathematics. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 22(4), 497-514.
Gallagher, A. M., De Lisi, R., Holst, P. C., McGillicuddy-De Lisi, A. V., Morely, M., & Cahalan, C. (2000). Gender Differences in Advanced Mathematical Problem Solving. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 75(3), 165-190.
Geary, D. C., Saults, S. J., Liu, F., & Hoard, M. K. (2000). Sex Differences in Spatial Cognition, Computational Fluency, and Arithmetical Reasoning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77(4), 337-353.
Hyde, J. S., Lindberg, S. M., Linn, M. C., Ellis, A. B., & Williams, C. C. (2008). Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance. Science, 321(5888), 494-495.
Jöreskog, K. and Sörbom, D. (1993), LISREL 8: Structural Equation Modeling with the SIMPLIS Command Language. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International Inc.
Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An Index of Factorial Simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31-36. doi: 10.1007/BF02291575
Kargar, M., Tarmizi, R. A., & Bayat, S. (2010). Relationship between Mathematical Thinking, Mathematics Anxiety and Mathematics Attitudes among University Students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 537-542.
Kass, R. A., & Tinsley, H. E. A. (1979). Factor Analysis. Journal of Leisure Research, 11, 120-138.
Kazu, H., & Ersözlü, Z. N. (2008). Öğretmen Adaylarının Problem Çözme Becerilerinin Cinsiyet, Bölüm ve ÖSS Puan Türüne göre İncelenmesi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi.
Keller, C. (2001). Effect of Teachers' Stereotyping on Students' Stereotyping of Mathematics as a Male Domain. The Journal of Social Psychology, 141(2), 165-173.
Kline, P. (1994). An Easy Guide To Factor Analysis. New York: Routledge.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Köğce, D., Yıldız, C., Aydın, M., & Altındağ, R. (2009). Examining elementary school students’ attitudes towards mathematics in terms of some variables. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 291-295.
Leder, G. C., & Forgasz, H. J. (2002). Two New Instruments to Probe Attitudes about Gender and Mathematics.
MEB, (2015) .Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı İlköğretim Matematik Dersi (1-4.Sınıflar) Öğretim Programı.
Nunnally JC. (1978). Psychometric Theory, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pallant, J. (2001). SPSS Survival Manual. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Parsons, J. E., Adler, T. F., & Kaczala, C. M. (1982). Socialization of Achievement Attitudes and Beliefs: Parental influences. Child Development, 310-321.
Pett, M. A., Lackey, N. R., & Sullivan, J. J. (2003). Making Sense of Factor Analysis: The Use of Factor Analysis for Instrument Development in Health Care Research. CA: Sage.
Rallis, SP &Ahren, SA (1986) Math and Science Education in High Schools: A Question of Sex Equality? American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California
Räty, H., Vänskä, J., Kasanen, K., & Kärkkäinen, R. (2002). Parents' Explanations of Their Child's Performance in Mathematics and Reading: A Replication and Extension of Yee and Eccles. Sex Roles, 46(3-4), 121-128.
Schmader, T. (2002). Gender Identification Moderates Stereotype Threat Effects on Women's Math Performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,38(2), 194-201.
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Barquissau, M. (2004). The Costs of Accepting Gender Differences: The Role of Stereotype Endorsement in Women's Experience in the Math Domain. Sex Roles, 50(11-12), 835-850.
Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 4-28.
Sümer, N. (2000). Yapısal Eşitlik Modelleri: Temel Kavramlar ve Örnek Uygulamalar. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 3(6), 49-74.
Tate, W. F. (1997). Race-Ethnicity, SES, Gender, and Language Proficiency Trends in Mathematics Achievement: An Update. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 652-679.
Tavşancıl, E. (2005). Tutumların Ölçülmesi ve SPSS ile Veri Analizi. Ankara: Nobel.
Taylor, F. (2003). Content Analysis and Gender Stereotypes in Children's Books. Teaching Sociology, 300-311.
Tiedemann, J. (2000). Gender-Related Beliefs of Teachers in Elementary School Mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 41(2), 191-207.
Tiedemann, J. (2002). Teachers' gender stereotypes as determinants of teacher perceptions in elementary school mathematics. Educational Studies in mathematics, 50(1), 49-62.
Van de Gaer, E., Pustjens, H., Van Damme, J., & De Munter, A. (2008). Mathematics Participation and Mathematics Achievement across Secondary School: The Role of Gender. Sex Roles, 59(7-8), 568-585.
Weissglass, J. (2002). Inequity in Mathematics Education: Questions for Educators. The Mathematics Educator. 12 (2), 34-39.
Wigboldus, D. H., Semin, G. R., & Spears, R. (2000). How Do We Communicate Stereotypes? Linguistic Bases and Inferential Consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 5.
Yee, D. K., & Eccles, J. S. (1988). Parent Perceptions and Attributions for Children's Math Achievement. Sex Roles, 19(5-6), 317-333.
Yücel, Z., & Koç, M. (2011). The Relationship between the Prediction Level of Elementary School Students’ Math Achievement by Their Math Attitudes and Gender. Elementary Education Online, 10(1), 133-143.
Downloads
Published
2017-12-30
How to Cite
Nurlu, Özge. (2017). Developing a Teachers’ Gender Stereotype Scale toward Mathematics. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 10(2), 287–299. Retrieved from https://www.iejee.com/index.php/IEJEE/article/view/363
Issue
Section
Articles
